One of the first symptoms of puerperal infection to assess for in the postpartum woman is:
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Overview Show
BackgroundPostpartum infections comprise a wide range of entities that can occur after vaginal and cesarean delivery or during breastfeeding. In addition to trauma sustained during the birth process or cesarean procedure, physiologic changes during pregnancy contribute to the development of postpartum infections. [1] The typical pain that many women feel in the immediate postpartum period also makes it difficult to discern postpartum infection from postpartum pain. Postpartum patients are frequently discharged within a couple days following delivery. The short period of observation may not afford enough time to exclude evidence of infection prior to discharge from the hospital. In one study, 94% of postpartum infection cases were diagnosed after discharge from the hospital. [2] Postpartum fever is defined as a temperature greater than 38.0°C on any 2 of the first 10 days following delivery exclusive of the first 24 hours. [3] The presence of postpartum fever is generally accepted among clinicians as a sign of infection that must be determined and managed.  PathophysiologyLocal spread of colonized bacteria is the most common etiology for postpartum infection following vaginal delivery. Endometritis is the most common infection in the postpartum period. Other postpartum infections include (1) postsurgical wound infections, (2) perineal cellulitis, (3) mastitis, (4) respiratory complications from anesthesia, (5) retained products of conception, (6) urinary tract infections (UTIs), and (7) septic pelvic phlebitis. Wound infection is more common with cesarean delivery. (A review study by Haas et al indicated that cleansing the vagina with a povidone-iodine or chlorhexidine solution immediately prior to cesarean delivery decreases the risk for postoperative endometritis. [4] ) EtiologyEndometritisThe Route of delivery is the single most important factor in the development of endometritis. [5] The risk of endometritis increases dramatically after cesarean delivery. [5, 6] However, there is some evidence that hospital readmission for management of postpartum endometritis occurs more often in those who delivered vaginally. [6] Other risk factors include prolonged rupture of membranes, prolonged use of internal fetal monitoring, anemia, and lower socioeconomic status. [5] Perioperative antibiotics have greatly decreased the incidence of endometritis. [5] In most cases of endometritis, the bacteria responsible are those that normally reside in the bowel, vagina, perineum, and cervix. The uterine cavity is usually sterile until the rupture of the amniotic sac. As a consequence of labor, delivery, and associated manipulations, anaerobic and aerobic bacteria can contaminate the uterus. Wound infectionsMost often, the etiologic organisms associated with perineal cellulitis and episiotomy site infections are Staphylococcus or Streptococcus species and gram-negative organisms, as in endometritis. Vaginal secretions contain as many as 10 billion organisms per gram of fluid. Yet, infections develop in only 1% of patients who had vaginal tears or who underwent episiotomies. Those who underwent cesarean delivery have a higher readmission rate for wound infection and complications than those who delivered vaginally. [7] Genital tract infectionsIncreased risk of genital tract infections is related to the duration of labor (ie prolonged labor increases risk of infection), use of internal monitoring devices, and number of vaginal examinations. [8] Genital tract infections are generally polymicrobial. Gram-positive cocci and Bacteroides and Clostridium species are the predominant anaerobic organisms involved. Escherichia coli and gram-positive cocci are commonly involved aerobes. MastitisThe most common organism reported in mastitis is Staphylococcus aureus. The organism usually comes from the breastfeeding infant's mouth or throat. Thrombosis may occur. Numerous factors cause pregnant and postpartum women to be more susceptible to thrombosis. Pregnancy is known to induce a hypercoagulable state secondary to increased levels of clotting factors. Also, venous stasis occurs in the pelvic veins during pregnancy. Although relatively rare, septic pelvic thrombosis is occasionally observed in the postpartum patient, who might have fever. Urinary tract infectionsBacteria most frequently found in UTIs are normal bowel flora, including E coli and Klebsiella, Proteus, and Enterobacter species. Any form of invasive manipulation of the urethra (eg, Foley catheterization) increases the likelihood of a UTI. General risk factorsThe following increase the risk for postpartum infections:
In the aforementioned study by Bauer et al, of approximately 45 million hospitalizations for delivery between 1998 and 2008, medical conditions that were found to be independently associated with severe sepsis included congestive heart failure, chronic kidney disease, chronic liver disease, and systemic lupus erythematosus. An association with rescue cerclage was also found. [9] EpidemiologyUnited States statisticsIn a study by Yokoe et al in 2001, 5.5% of vaginal deliveries and 7.4% of cesarean deliveries resulted in a postpartum infection. [2] The overall postpartum infection rate was 6.0%. Endometritis accounted for nearly half of the infections in patients following cesarean delivery (3.4% of cesarean deliveries). Mastitis and urinary tract infections together accounted for 5% of vaginal deliveries. [2] A study by Bauer et al indicated that in the United States from 1998 to 2008, of approximately 45 million hospitalizations for delivery, sepsis was a complication in 1 out of every 3333 deliveries. The investigators also found that during the study period, the risk for severe sepsis (1:10,823 deliveries) and sepsis-related death (1:105,263 deliveries) increased. [9] Race-related demographicsThe risk of postpartum urinary tract infection is increased in the African American, Native American, and Hispanic populations. [10] PrognosisThe prognosis for postpartum infections is good with prompt and appropriate therapy. In most reviews, maternal death rates associated with infection range from 4-8%, or approximately 0.6 maternal deaths per 100,000 live births. A pregnancy-related mortality surveillance by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention indicated infection accounted for about 11.6% of all deaths following pregnancy that resulted in a live birth, stillbirth, or ectopic. [11] ComplicationsComplications include the following:
Author Coauthor(s) Specialty Editor Board Francisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD Adjunct Assistant Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Pharmacy; Editor-in-Chief, Medscape Drug Reference Disclosure: Received salary from Medscape for employment. for: Medscape. Mark L Zwanger, MD, MBA, FACEP Emergency Medicine Physician Mark L Zwanger, MD, MBA, FACEP is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Emergency Physicians Disclosure: Nothing to disclose. Chief Editor Bruce M Lo, MD, MBA, CPE, RDMS, FACEP, FAAEM, FACHE Chief, Department of Emergency Medicine, Sentara Norfolk General Hospital; Medical Ditector, Sentara Transfer Center; Professor and Assistant Program Director, Core Academic Faculty, Department of Emergency Medicine, Eastern Virginia Medical School; Board Member, American Academy of Emergency Medicine Bruce M Lo, MD, MBA, CPE, RDMS, FACEP, FAAEM, FACHE is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Emergency Medicine, American Association for Physician Leadership, American College of Emergency Physicians, American College of Healthcare Executives, American Institute of Ultrasound in Medicine, Emergency Nurses Association, Medical Society of Virginia, Norfolk Academy of Medicine, Society for Academic Emergency Medicine Disclosure: Nothing to disclose. Additional Contributors Acknowledgements Elicia Kennedy, MD Clinical Assistant Professor, Department of Emergency Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences. Elicia Kennedy is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Emergency Physicians and Society for Academic Emergency Medicine. Disclosure: Nothing to disclose. Andy W Wong, MD Resident Physician, Department of Emergency Medicine, Wayne State University, Detroit Receiving Hospital Andy W Wong, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Emergency Physicians and Emergency Medicine Residents Association Disclosure: Nothing to disclose. Which is one of the first symptoms of puerperal infection to assess for in the postpartum patient?Symptoms and signs may include: fever. pain in the lower abdomen or pelvis caused by a swollen uterus. foul-smelling vaginal discharge.
What are signs of postpartum infection?Other signs of a postpartum infection include:. Soreness, tenderness, or swelling of the belly or abdomen.. Chills.. Pain while urinating or during sex.. Abnormal vaginal discharge that has a bad smell or blood in it.. A general feeling of discomfort or unwellness.. Headache.. What are the signs and symptoms of puerperal sepsis?Puerperal sepsis. Fever (oral temperature 38.5°C/101.3°F or higher on any occasion).. Pelvic pain.. Abnormal vaginal discharge, e.g. presence of pus.. Abnormal smell/foul odour of discharge.. Delay in the rate of reduction of the size of the uterus (involution).. What are the signs and symptoms of postpartum complications?Bleeding and soaking through more than one pad an hour or blood clots the size of an egg or bigger. An incision that isn't healing. A red or swollen leg that's painful or warm to the touch.. Chest pain.. Obstructed breathing or shortness of breath.. Seizures.. Thoughts of hurting yourself or your baby.. |
