Which of the following is not a method of organization for an academic essay?

A spatial pattern of organization arranges information according to how things fit together in physical space; i.e., where one thing exists in relation to another. This pattern works well when a writer wishes to create a mental picture of something which has various parts distinguished by physical location. Topics involving geography, for example, are often best organized using a spatial pattern.

For example, suppose a writer wished to describe the forms of entertainment available to tourists visiting Seattle. He/she could arrange the information according to "things to do" in the different districts or geographic locations of the city. Notice how this pattern of organization aids the reader. It makes sense for the writer to organize the information by physical location because the information is easy to understand and use in this format, particularly for tourists who are not familiar with the area.

II. Seattle Center

III. University District

II. Quality of Education

III. Educational Programs

I. Points of Comparison

II. Points of Contrast

Advantages-Disadvantages Patterns

This pattern organizes information about a topic by dividing it up into its "good" and "bad" parts, or pro's and con's. It is effective to use when a writer wishes to objectively discuss both sides of an issue without taking a persuasive stance. This allows the reader to weigh both sides of an issue. As with the compare-contrast pattern, there are a number of possible variations to an advantages-disadvantages pattern. The simplest form of this pattern is shown below.

Suppose, for example, that a writer's stated purpose is to describe the advantages and disadvantages of attending a two-year college. One way to arrange the information is to divide it into two main sections, one for the advantages and one for the disadvantages. In this scenario, the information contained within each main section will represent the specific topics of analysis (cost, accessibility, etc).

Advantages and Disadvantages Example

I. Advantages

1. Cost
2. Accessibility

II. Disadvantages

1. Number of educational programs
2. Quality of instruction

Cause-Effect Patterns

This pattern is used to show the different causes and effects of various conditions. This pattern is particularly effective when writing a persuasive document in which the writer advocates some action to solve a problem, because it demonstrates important relationships between variables. There are two major variations to this pattern; (a) dividing the outline into two major sections comprised of causes and effects; or (b) dividing the outline according to the different causes, with the effects of each cause contained within the larger "causes" section. See the examples below.

Suppose a writer's stated purpose is to explain the causes of conflict escalation and their effects. He/she could organize the information in one of the following two ways. Again, notice that either method could work equally well.

Cause and Effect Pattern Example One

I. Causes of Conflict Escalation

1. Expanding the issues
2. Personal attacks

1. Lose focus on original issue
2. Cycle of defensive responses
3. Win-Lose orientation
4. Negative emotions

Cause and Effect Pattern Example Two

I. Cause: Expanding the issues

1. Effect: Lose focus on original issues
2. Effect: Cycle of defensive responses

II. Cause: Personal attacks

1. Effect: Negative emotions
2. Effect: Win-Lose orientation

Problem-Solution Patterns

A problem-solution pattern divides information into two main sections, one that describes a problem and one that describes a solution. This pattern is typically used in persuasive writing, where the writer's general purpose is to convince the reader to support a certain course of action. The pattern is designed to compel the reader to make some kind of change in opinion or behavior by establishing that a problem exists, then providing a solution. In the problem section, the writer identifies different aspects of the problem being discussed and offers evidence of these problems. In the solution section, the writer identifies a potential solution and supports the effectiveness of this solution over others.

For example, suppose a writer's stated purpose is to persuade his/her readers to ride bicycles as their primary form of transportation. First the writer will attempt to establish that common forms of motorized transportation create compelling problems that require a solution. Then he/she will show how the proposed solution - riding bikes - provides a beneficial alternative to driving.

Problem-Solution Example

I. Problem: Motorized Transportation

1. Increasing traffic congestion
2. Increasing pollution
3. Increasing "road rage" from traffic-related stress

II. Solution: Riding Bicycles

1. Bike riding reduces the number of motorized vehicles in use
2. Bike riding is not a source of pollution
3. Bike riding has physical and psychological health benefits

Topical Pattern

This pattern is the most commonly used format, and will typically work when the other patterns do not. A topical pattern arranges information according to different sub-topics within a larger topic, or the "types" of things that fall within a larger category. Using this pattern, each "type" represents a main section of information.

For example, suppose a writer wished to describe various types of wine. One way to outline this information would be to divide the type of wine by its color, as shown in example one. A second way would be to divide the types of wine by the region in which they were made, as shown in example two.

Topical Pattern Example One

I. Red Wines

A. European

1. Bordeaux
2. Burgundy
3. Chianti

B. Californian

1. Cabernet Sauvignon
2. Pinot Noir
3. Zinfandel

II. White Wines

A. European

1. Bordeaux
2. Burgundy
3. Mosel

B. Californian

1. Sauvignon Blanc
2. Chardonnay
3. Riesling

Topical Pattern Example Two

I. European Wines

Red

1. ___
2. ___
3. ___

   White

   1. ___
   2. ___
   3. ___

   II. Californian Wines
   

   Red

   1. ___
   2. ___
   3. ___

      White

      1. ___
      2. ___
      3. ____

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